{"id":15060,"date":"2020-11-24T09:10:51","date_gmt":"2020-11-24T09:10:51","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/onlineclassesguru.com\/index.php\/2020\/11\/24\/present-the-research-design-you-will-be-using-in-your-final-research-investigation\/"},"modified":"2020-11-24T09:10:51","modified_gmt":"2020-11-24T09:10:51","slug":"present-the-research-design-you-will-be-using-in-your-final-research-investigation","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/onlineclassesguru.com\/index.php\/2020\/11\/24\/present-the-research-design-you-will-be-using-in-your-final-research-investigation\/","title":{"rendered":"present the research design you will be using in your final research investigation"},"content":{"rendered":"<style type=\"text\/css\"><\/style><p>You are really nervous before a first date, so your mother gives you some advice: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Just be yourself. Your true self.\u00e2\u20ac\u009d But that advice doesn\u2019t seem too helpful. Well intentioned though she may be, Mom raises two problems. First, you want to impress your date and get him or her to like you. What if your date does not like your \u00e2\u20ac\u0153true self\u00e2\u20ac\u009d? Even if you do like Mom\u2019s plan, there is a second problem: What exactly is your \u00e2\u20ac\u0153true\u00e2\u20ac\u009d self? The nature of the self, and the tension between being yourself versus wanting to be liked by other people, are central concerns in the personality theory developed by Carl Rogers. Rogers first addressed these concerns in his work as a clinical psychologist. He combined his clinical insights with systematic empirical research to develop a theory of the totality of the individual that highlighted the person\u2019s efforts to develop a meaningful sense of self. In addition to being a self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090theory, Rogers\u2019s work also can be categorized as a phenomenological theory. A phenomenological theory is one that emphasizes the individual\u2019s subjective experience of his or her world\u00e2\u20ac\u201din other words, his or her phenomenological experience. As a therapist, Rogers\u2019s overarching goal was to understand the client\u2019s phenomenological experience of the self and the world in order to assist the client in personal growth. As a theorist, his overarching goal was to develop a framework to explain the nature and development of the self as the core element of personality. Rogers\u2019s phenomenological self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090theory can also be described by another term: humanistic. Rogers\u2019s work is part of a humanistic movement in psychology whose core feature was to emphasize people\u2019s inherent potential for growth. This chapter, then, introduces you to the theory\u00e2\u20ac\u201dthe phenomenological, humanistic, self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090theory\u00e2\u20ac\u201dthat is the enduring legacy of one of the great American psychologists of the 20th century, Carl Rogers. Questions to be Addressed in this Chapter What is the self, and why might one not act in a manner consistent with one\u2019s true self? Freud viewed motivation in terms of tension reduction, the pursuit of pleasure, and intrapsychic conflict. Is it possible to view human motivation, instead, in terms of personal growth, self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090actualization, and feelings of congruence? How important is it for us to have a stable self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept? How important is it for our internal feelings to match our self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept? What do we do when feelings are in conflict with our self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090beliefs? What are the childhood conditions that produce a positive sense of self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090worth? In the previous chapters, you learned about Freud\u2019s psychoanalytic theory of personality and related psychodynamic positions. We now introduce a second, entirely different perspective. It is that of the American psychologist Carl Rogers. His work exemplifies a phenomenological approach to the study of persons. At the outset, you should consider how these conceptions, Freud\u2019s and Rogers\u2019s, are related. Rogers did not disagree with everything Freud said about persons. He recognized that Freud provided some insights about the workings of the mind that are of enduring value. Also, Rogers worked in a style that was similar in some ways to that of Freud. Rogers, like Freud, began his career as a therapist and based his general theory of personality primarily on his therapeutic experiences. However, these affinities are less important than are some deep differences. Rogers disagreed sharply with major emphases of Freudian theory: its depiction of humans as controlled by unconscious forces; its assertion that personality is determined, in a fixed manner, by experiences early in life; its associated belief that adult psychological experience is a repeating of the repressed conflicts of the past. To Rogers, these psychodynamic views did not adequately portray human existence or human potential. Rogers thus provided a new theory of the person. It emphasized conscious perceptions of the present rather than merely unconscious residues of the past, interpersonal experiences encountered across the course of life rather than merely parental relations in childhood, and people\u2019s capacity to grow toward psychological maturity rather than merely their tendency to repeat childhood conflicts. Rogers expands our conception of human nature, and in a very positive direction. To many contemporary psychologists, his positive conception of the person, developed during the mid\u00e2\u20ac\u009020th century, is of enduring importance. \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Half a century on from when Rogers first developed his theory, it still has profound consequences for the person and their ability to maintain and enhance themselves\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (McMillan, 2004, p. ix). Carl R. Rogers (1902\u00e2\u20ac\u201c1987): A View of the Theorist \u00e2\u20ac\u0153I speak as a person, from a context of personal experience and personal learning.\u00e2\u20ac\u009d This is how Rogers describes himself, in a chapter entitled \u00e2\u20ac\u0153This Is Me,\u00e2\u20ac\u009d in his 1961 book On Becoming a Person. The chapter is a personal, very moving account by Rogers of the development of his professional thinking and personal philosophy. Rogers states what he does and how he feels about it: This book is about the suffering and the hope, the anxiety and the satisfaction, with which each therapist\u2019s counseling room is filled\u00e2\u20ac\u00a6 It is about me as I try to perceive his (the client\u2019s) experience, and the meaning and the feeling and the taste and flavor that it has for him. It is about me as I rejoice at the privilege of being a midwife to a new personality as I stand by with awe at the emergence of a self, a person, as I see a birth process in which I have had an important and facilitating part. Source: Rogers (1961, pp. 4\u00e2\u20ac\u201c5). Carl R. Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois. He was reared in a strict and uncompromising religious and ethical atmosphere. His parents had the welfare of their children constantly in mind and inculcated in them a worship of hard work. Rogers\u2019s description of his early life reveals two main trends that are reflected in his later work. The first is the concern with moral and ethical matters. The second is the respect for the methods of science. The latter appears to have developed out of exposure to his father\u2019s efforts to operate their farm on a scientific basis and Rogers\u2019s own reading of books on scientific agriculture. Rogers started his college education at the University of Wisconsin, majoring in agriculture, but after two years, he changed his professional goals and decided to enter the ministry. During a trip to Asia in 1922, he had a chance to observe commitments to other religious doctrines as well as the bitter mutual hatreds of French and German people, who otherwise seemed to be likable individuals. Experiences like these influenced his decision to go to a liberal theological seminary, the Union Theological Seminary in New York. Although he was concerned about questions regarding the meaning of life for individuals, Rogers had doubts about specific religious doctrines. Therefore, he chose to leave the seminary, to work in the field of child guidance, and to think of himself as a clinical psychologist. Carl R. Rogers. Rogers obtained his graduate training at Teachers College, Columbia University, receiving his Ph.D. in 1931. His education included exposure to both the dynamic views of Freud and the rigorous experimental methods then prevalent at Teachers College. Again, there were the pulls in different directions, the development of two somewhat divergent trends. In his later life, Rogers attempted to bring these trends into harmony. Indeed, these later years represent an effort to integrate the religious with the scientific, the intuitive with the objective, and the clinical with the statistical. Throughout his career, Rogers tried continually to apply the objective methods of science to what is most basically human. In 1968, Rogers and his more humanistically oriented colleagues formed the Center for the Studies of the Person. The development of the center expressed a number of shifts in emphasis in Rogers\u2019s studies from work within a formal academic structure to work with a collection of individuals who shared a perspective, from work with disturbed individuals to work with normal individuals, from individual therapy to intensive group workshops, and from conventional empirical research to the phenomenological study of people. Rogers believed that most of psychology was sterile and generally felt alienated from the field. Yet the field continued to value his contributions. He was president of the American Psychological Association in 1946\u00e2\u20ac\u201c1947, was one of the first three psychologists to receive the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award (1956) from the profession, and in 1972 was the recipient of the Distinguished Professional Contribution Award. With Rogers, the theory, the man, and the life are interwoven. In his chapter \u00e2\u20ac\u0153This Is Me,\u00e2\u20ac\u009d Rogers lists 14 principles that he learned from thousands of hours of therapy and research. Here are some illustrations: In my relationships with persons I have found that it does not help, in the long run, to act as though I were something that I am not. Experience is, for me, the highest authority. It has been my experience that persons have a basically positive direction. Source: Rogers (1961a, pp. 16\u00e2\u20ac\u201c17). Rogers\u2019s View of the Person The Subjectivity of Experience Rogers\u2019s theory is built on a deeply significant insight into the human condition. In our daily living, we believe we experience an objective world of reality. When we see something occur, we believe it exists as we saw it. When we tell people about the events of our day, we believe we are telling them what really happened. We are so confident in our objective knowledge of an objective reality that we rarely question it. But Rogers does. He explains: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153I do not react to some absolute reality, but to my perception of this reality\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1951, 1977, p. 206, emphasis added). The \u00e2\u20ac\u0153reality\u00e2\u20ac\u009d we observe is really a \u00e2\u20ac\u0153private world of experience \u00e2\u20ac\u00a6 , the phenomenal field\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1951, 1977, p. 206). This phenomenal field\u00e2\u20ac\u201dthe space of perceptions that makes up our experience\u00e2\u20ac\u201dis a subjective construction. The individual constructs this inner world of experience, and the construction reflects not only the outer world of reality but also the inner world of personal needs, goals, and beliefs. Inner psychological needs shape the subjective experiences that we interpret as objectively real. Consider some simple examples. If a child sees an angry look from its mother, or you detect a disappointed look from a dating partner, these emotions\u00e2\u20ac\u201danger, disappointment\u00e2\u20ac\u201dare the reality that is experienced. But this so\u00e2\u20ac\u0090called reality could be wrong. Personal needs (to be accepted by the mother, to be attractive to the dating partner) may contribute to our perceiving the other as angry or disappointed. Yet people commonly fail to recognize this influence of inner needs on perceptions of the outer world. Failing to recognize this, the individual \u00e2\u20ac\u0153perceives his experience as reality. His experience is his reality\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1959, 1977, p. 207). We are sure things really exist as we saw them. Yet our seeing is not an objective recording of the world of reality but a subjective construction that reflects our personal needs. Feelings of Authenticity Two additional aspects of Rogers\u2019s analysis of the subjectivity of experience define his core view of the person. The first is that people are prone to a distinctive form of psychological distress. It is a feeling of alienation or detachment\u00e2\u20ac\u201dthe feeling that one\u2019s experiences and daily activities do not stem from one\u2019s true, authentic self. Why do these feelings arise? Because we need the approval of others, we tell ourselves that their desires and values are our own. The child tries to convince himself that it really is bad to hit his baby sister, just as his parents say, even though it feels good to do so. The adult tries to convince herself that it really is good to settle down into a traditional career and family lifestyle, as valued relatives instruct, even though she really prefers a life of independence. When this happens, the individual thinks but does not feel an attachment to his or her own values. \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Primary sensory and visceral reactions are ignored\u00e2\u20ac\u009d and \u00e2\u20ac\u0153the individual begins on a pathway that he later describes as \u00e2\u20ac\u02dcI really don\u2019t know myself\u00e2\u20ac\u2122\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1951, 1977, p. 213). Rogers relates the case of a client who described her experiences as follows: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153I\u2019ve always tried to be what the others thought I should be, but now I\u2019m wondering whether I shouldn\u2019t just see that I am what I am\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1951, 1977, p. 218). Maybe you\u2019ve got the wrong job? Rogers\u2019s theory of personality stressed that people can get caught up in activities that do not feel right, or \u00e2\u20ac\u0153authentic,\u00e2\u20ac\u009d for them. A lack of authenticity creates distress. Note how Rogers\u2019s conception of the deliberate\/thoughtful and the instinctive\/visceral aspects of the organism differs from Freud\u2019s. To Freud, visceral reactions were animalistic impulses that needed to be curbed by the civilized ego and superego. Distorting and denying these impulses was part of normal, healthy personality functioning. But to Rogers, these instinctive visceral reactions are a potential source of wisdom. Individuals who openly experience the full range of their emotions, who are \u00e2\u20ac\u0153accepting and assimilating [of] all the sensory evidence experienced by the organism\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Rogers, 1951, 1977, p. 219), are psychologically well adjusted. Conflict between instinctive and rational elements of mind thus is not an immutable feature of the human condition in Rogers\u2019s view. Rather than conflict, persons can experience congruence. They can realize a state in which their conscious experiences and goals are consistent with their inner, viscerally felt values. The Positivity of Human Motivation The final key aspect of Rogers\u2019s view of persons is his conception of human motivation. Rogers\u2019s clinical experiences convinced him that the core of our nature is essentially positive. Our most fundamental motivation is toward positive growth. Rogers recognized that some institutions may teach us otherwise. Some religions, for example, teach that we are basically sinful. The institution of psychoanalysis teaches that our basic instincts are sexual and aggressive. Rogers did recognize that people can, and often do, act in ways that are destructive and evil. But his basic contention is that, when we are functioning freely, we are able to move toward our potential as positive, mature beings. To those who called him a naive optimist, Rogers was quick to point out that his conclusions were based on decades of experience in psychotherapy: I do not have a Pollyanna view of human nature \u00e2\u20ac\u00a6 individuals can and do behave in ways which are incredibly \u00e2\u20ac\u00a6 [yet I] work with such individuals \u00e2\u20ac\u00a6 to discover the strongly positive directional tendencies which exist in them. Source: Rogers (1961, p. 27). Here is a profound respect for people, a respect that is reflected in Rogers\u2019s theory of personality and his person\u00e2\u20ac\u0090centered approach to psychotherapy. A Phenomenological Perspective Rogers takes a phenomenological approach to the study of persons. Here at the outset of our coverage of his work, then, we should explain what is meant by this lengthy term. In psychology or other disciplines, such as philosophy, a phenomenological approach is one that investigates people\u2019s conscious experiences. The investigation, in other words, does not try to characterize the world of reality as it exists independent of the human observer. Instead, one is interested in the experiences of the observer: how the person experiences the world. A bit of reflection on the material of the previous two chapters should reveal why Rogers\u2019s position was so noteworthy within personality psychology. The psychodynamic tradition was not particularly interested in phenomenology. To Freud, conscious phenomenological experience is not the core of personality. Indeed, conscious experience may be related in only the most indirect ways to that core, which involves unconscious drives and defenses. As you will see in subsequent chapters, some other theories that initially were developed at around the same time as Rogers\u2019s (e.g., trait theory, behaviorism) devote relatively little attention to the textures and dynamics of everyday phenomenological experience. Rogers, then, was an important voice in promoting the psychological study of phenomenology. Rogers\u2019s View of the Science of Personality What does Rogers\u2019s concern with phenomenological experience have to do with his view of the science of personality? Are these two independent things: a phenomenological perspective on psychology on the one hand and a viewpoint on science on the other? Or might one have an implication for the other? A bit of reflection suggests that a marriage between a traditional conception of science and a concern with phenomenological experience may be difficult. Science, as usually conceived, rests on clear\u00e2\u20ac\u0090cut data: Laboratory instruments inform us about entities\u2019 objective physical features (size, mass, electrical charge, etc.). Rogers, however, argues that personality psychology must address subjective internal experiences. These experiences cannot be measured in the manner of objective physical qualities. Instead, they have a subjective quality; their meaning rests on the interpretations of the individual having the experience (the subject who is experiencing things). Rogers\u2019s work can be understood as an attempt to draw on the best of two worlds, that of traditional science and that of the clinical understanding of subjective experience. In therapy, his main goal was not to classify his client within a scientific taxonomy or to identify some past causal factor that was a key determinant of his client\u2019s behavior. Instead, his goal was to gain a deep<span class=\"redactor-invisible-space\">\u00a0<\/span>understanding of how his clients experienced their world. His efforts in this regard were similar to a reader\u2019s efforts to understand the world as experienced by the narrator of a first\u00e2\u20ac\u0090person novel or the author of an autobiography. On the other hand, Rogers had great respect for the scientific method and felt that psychology could eventually establish itself as a lawful science. He was particularly careful to subject his ideas about the effective forms of therapy to scientific testing. Rogers made a valiant effort to wed the scientific and the human sides of personality science.<\/p>\n<section>\n<h2>The Personality Theory of Carl Rogers<\/h2>\n<p>Having introduced Rogers, his overall view of human nature, and his conception of personality science, we now turn to the details: the specifics of Rogers\u2019s theory of personality.<\/p>\n<section>\n<h3>Structure<\/h3>\n<section>\n<h4>The Self<\/h4>\n<p>In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/c01.xhtml\">Chapter 1<\/a>, we distinguished between the structure and process aspects of personality theories. This distinction, useful in understanding the work of Freud, is valuable again in learning about the theory of Carl Rogers. Let\u2019s first examine the structure aspects of Rogerian theory, whose key structural concept is the self.<\/p>\n<p>According to Rogers, the self is an aspect of phenomenological experience. It is one aspect of our experience of the world, that is, one of the things that fill our conscious experience is our experience of ourselves, or of \u00e2\u20ac\u0153a self.\u00e2\u20ac\u009d Phrased more formally, according to Rogers, the individual perceives external objects and experiences and attaches meanings to them. The total system of perceptions and meanings make up the individual\u2019s phenomenal field. That subset of the phenomenal field that is recognized by the individual as \u00e2\u20ac\u0153me,\u00e2\u20ac\u009d or \u00e2\u20ac\u0153I\u00e2\u20ac\u009d is the self. The\u00a0<strong>self<\/strong>, or\u00a0<strong><a id=\"R_c05-term-003\" href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b01.xhtml#term56\">self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept<\/a><\/strong>, represents an organized and consistent pattern of perceptions. Although the self changes, it always retains this patterned, integrated, organized quality. Because the organized quality endures over time and characterizes the individual, the self is a personality structure. To Rogers, the self is not a little person inside of us. The self does not independently control behavior. Rather, the self is an organized set of perceptions possessed by the individual, who is ultimately responsible for his or her actions.<\/p>\n<p>The pattern of experiences and perceptions known as the self is, in general, available to awareness. That is, people are consciously aware that it includes conscious self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090perceptions. Although individuals do have experiences of which they are unaware, the self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept is primarily conscious. (Note that Rogers\u2019s use of the term\u00a0<i>self<\/i>\u00a0differs from that of Carl Jung, whose views were discussed in the previous chapter. Jung thought of the self as an unconscious archetypal force, whereas Rogers uses the term\u00a0<i>self<\/i>\u00a0to refer to our conscious self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept.)<\/p>\n<p>Rogers did recognize two different aspects to the self: an actual self and an\u00a0<strong><a id=\"R_c05-term-004\" href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b01.xhtml#term143\">ideal self<\/a><\/strong>. Rogers recognized that people naturally think about not only themselves in the present but also their potential selves in the future. They thus generate an organized pattern of perceptions not only of their current self but also of an ideal self that they would like to be. The ideal self, then, is the self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept that an individual would most like to possess. It includes the perceptions and meanings that potentially are relevant to the self and that are valued highly by the individual. Rogers thus recognizes that our views of ourselves contain two distinct components: the self that we believe we are now and the self that we ideally see ourselves becoming in the future.<\/p>\n<p>Rogers maintained that he did not begin his theoretical work by deciding that it was important to study the self. In fact, he first thought that\u00a0<i>self<\/i>\u00a0was a vague, scientifically meaningless term. However, he listened carefully to his clients, who commonly expressed their psychological experience in terms of a self; clients would report that they \u00e2\u20ac\u0153did not feel like themselves\u00e2\u20ac\u009d, \u00e2\u20ac\u0153were disappointed in themselves\u00e2\u20ac\u009d, and so forth. It became clear to Rogers, then, that the self was a psychological structure through which people were interpreting their world.<\/p>\n<aside>\n<section>\n<h2><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/images\/PB_Icon.png\" alt=\"Personality and the Brain_Icon\" \/>\u00a0Personality and the Brain<\/h2>\n<section>\n<h3>The Intuitive Self<\/h3>\n<p>There are different ways of thinking about oneself. Some require a lot of \u00e2\u20ac\u0153figuring out\u00e2\u20ac\u009d; that is, considerable thought is required to determine an answer to a question about yourself, even though the question involves a familiar topic: you. If someone asks you how you\u2019d react if you were caught up in a natural disaster, how you\u2019d differ if you were raised in a different culture, or what your personality will be like in old age, you don\u2019t know the answers for sure; you don\u2019t have firm \u00e2\u20ac\u0153intuitions\u00e2\u20ac\u009d. You have to give the questions considerable thought to figure out answers.<\/p>\n<p>The personality theorist Carl Rogers was particularly interested in cases in which people do have intuitions. He thought that people possess a core, true self that they can experience at a deep, intuitive level. Rogers\u2019s reasoning, combined with the cases of\u00a0<i>non<\/i>intuitive thinking about the self (above), yields an interesting prediction about personality and the brain. If intuitive and nonintuitive thinking about the self differ, then different regions of the brain should be active during intuitive versus nonintuitive thinking about the self.<\/p>\n<p>Brain\u00e2\u20ac\u0090imaging methods have addressed this question. One study (Lieberman, Jarcho, &amp; Satpute,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0593\">2004<\/a>) was conducted with two groups of participants: 11 college soccer players and 11 improvisational actors. Members of both groups were shown words relevant either to (1) soccer (e.g., agile, fit) or to (2) acting (e.g., creative, quick\u00e2\u20ac\u0090witted); the researchers reasoned that participants would think intuitively only about words relevant to their own group. When each word was presented, participants judged whether the word \u00e2\u20ac\u0153describes me\u00e2\u20ac\u009d. Brain scans were taken while participants performed the task. By analyzing the resulting brain images, the researchers could determine if different parts of the brain are active during intuitive and nonintuitive thinking.<\/p>\n<p>Indeed they are. Unlike what was found when participants were thinking nonintuitively (e.g., soccer players thinking about acting), when people were thinking intuitively about themselves, the active brain regions were ones that were \u00e2\u20ac\u0153more affective at their core\u00e2\u20ac\u009d (Lieberman et al.,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0593\">2004<\/a>, p. 431), that is, more connected to emotional life. These included the amygdala, a brain system central to emotional processing; an area in the temporal lobe (the large mass of brain matter on each side of the brain) that is thought to contribute to the rapid processing of information; and the posterior cingulate cortex, an area in the central, rear (i.e., toward the back of the head) portion of the brain.<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/images\/c05uf003.jpg\" alt=\"Schematic diagram of the brain with PCC, Amygdala, and Temporal lobe labeled.\" \/><\/figure>\n<p>More recent neuroscience findings bear on another distinction drawn by Rogers, namely, the difference between the actual and ideal self. The actual self concerns the self in the present. The ideal self refers to possibilities that lie in the future. Rogers\u2019 psychological distinction between present\u00e2\u20ac\u0090 and future\u00e2\u20ac\u0090oriented thinking about the self implies that different brain regions may be active during these different forms of thinking.<\/p>\n<p>To explore this question, in one recent study researchers (D\u2019Argembeau et al.,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0270\">2010<\/a>) showed participants a series of adjectives. In two different experimental conditions, participants judged whether the words described (1) their present, actual self, or (2) their future self, specifically, personality attributes they might possess five years from the present. Brain scans revealed different patterns of activation during these tasks. Specifically, an area near the front of the brain, the medial prefrontal cortex, was more active when people thought about their\u00a0<i>present<\/i>\u00a0self than their self in the future. The researchers suggest that this region in the prefrontal cortex is particularly active when people think about material to which they are psychologically \u00e2\u20ac\u0153connected,\u00e2\u20ac\u009d and people naturally feel more connected to their present, actual self than to thoughts about themselves five years in the future. Consistent with this interpretation, the medial prefrontal cortex was also less active when people thought about themselves as they were five years in the past (D\u2019Argembeau et al.,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0269\">2008<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0270\">2010<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Carl Rogers\u2019s theory of personality was psychological, not biological. He did not theorize about brain systems that underlie the capacity to think intuitively about the self, and to contemplate the self in the present and future. The results reviewed here thus cannot be viewed as directly supporting Rogers\u2019s theory (since, when it comes to the brain, he had no specific theory). Nonetheless, contemporary findings in neuroscience are consistent with Rogers\u2019s contention that intuitive, deeply felt conceptions of the self are a distinctive aspect of human mental life.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/aside>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h4>Measuring Self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090Concept<\/h4>\n<section>\n<h5>The Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090Sort Technique<\/h5>\n<p>Once he recognized the centrality of self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept, Rogers knew that he needed an objective way to measure it. To this end, he primarily used the\u00a0<strong><a id=\"R_c05-term-005\" href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b01.xhtml#term78\">Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090sort technique<\/a><\/strong>, which had been developed by Stephenson (<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/b02.xhtml#b02-bib-0935\">1953<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>In the Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090sort, the psychologist administering the test gives the test\u00e2\u20ac\u0090taker a set of cards, each of which contains a statement describing a personality characteristic: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Makes friends easily\u00e2\u20ac\u009d, \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Has trouble expressing anger\u00e2\u20ac\u009d, and so forth. Test\u00e2\u20ac\u0090takers sort these cards according to the degree to which each statement is seen as descriptive of themselves. This is done on a scale labeled\u00a0<i>Most characteristic of me<\/i>\u00a0on one end and\u00a0<i>Least characteristic of me<\/i>\u00a0on the other. People are asked to sort the cards according to a forced distribution, with most of the cards going in the middle and relatively few being sorted at either extreme end; this ensures that the individual carefully considers the content of each personality attribute in comparison to the others.<\/p>\n<p>Two features of the Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090sort are particularly noteworthy. One is that it strikes an interesting balance between fixed and flexible measures (see\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/c02.xhtml\">Chapter 2<\/a>). The same statements are given to all test\u00e2\u20ac\u0090takers; in this respect, the measure is fixed. But the tester does not merely give a person a score by adding up test responses in a fixed manner that is the same for all persons. Instead, the test is flexible in that test\u00e2\u20ac\u0090takers indicate which subset of items is most characteristic of themselves, from their own point of view. Different subsets of items are characterized as \u00e2\u20ac\u0153most like me\u00e2\u20ac\u009d and \u00e2\u20ac\u0153not like me\u00e2\u20ac\u009d by different individuals. The test, then, yields a more flexible portrait of the individual than is obtained by other measures, whose content is entirely fixed (as you will see in subsequent chapters). Yet it is not entirely flexible. People must use statements provided by the experimenter, instead of their own self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090descriptions, and must sort the statements in a manner prescribed by the psychologist rather than according to a distribution that makes the most sense to them.<\/p>\n<p>The second feature is that the Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090sort can be administered to individuals more than once in order to assess both the actual self and the ideal self. In the latter assessment, people are asked to categorize the statements according to the degree to which they describe the self that they ideally would like to be. By comparing the two Q\u00e2\u20ac\u0090sorts, ideal and actual self, one can obtain a quantitative measure of the difference, or discrepancy, between the two aspects of self\u00e2\u20ac\u0090concept. As you will see in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/jigsaw.vitalsource.com\/books\/9781119492016\/epub\/OPS\/c06.xhtml\">Chapter 6<\/a>, these discrepancies are important to psychopathology and therapeutic change.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Questions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How much congruence do you think there is between your actual, ideal, and ought selves? How does this affect how you think, feel, and act?<\/li>\n<li>Briefly summarize your thoughts on Rogers\u2019s major concepts of the self, self-actualization, and unconditional positive regard.<\/li>\n<li>What research design(s) did Rogers use in his studies?<\/li>\n<li>Do you think Rogers conducted his research ethically? Why or why not?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>PPART B<\/p>\n<p>present the research design you will be using in your final research investigation.<\/p>\n<p>ARTICLES . Overlap Between General Factors of Personality in the Big Five, Giant Three, and Trait Emotional Intelligence<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Tract two-Topic 1<\/p>\n<p>Attachment Theory and Research: Resurrection of the Psychodynamic Approach to Personality<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>To<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<p><center><a href=\"http:\/\/onlineclassesguru.com\/orders\/ordernow\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com\/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTyj99p60XCLyLk1htB7-1neRt8-2QdnenNlQ&usqp=CAU\"target=\"_http:\/\/onlineclassesguru.com\/orders\/ordernow\"\/><\/center><p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>You are really nervous before a first date, so your mother gives you some advice: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Just be yourself. Your true self.\u00e2\u20ac\u009d But that advice doesn\u2019t seem too helpful. Well intentioned though she may be, Mom raises two problems. First, you want to impress your date and get him or her to like you. What if&#8230;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-15060","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v17.0 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>present the research design you will be using in your final research investigation - onlineclassesguru<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"http:\/\/onlineclassesguru.com\/index.php\/2020\/11\/24\/present-the-research-design-you-will-be-using-in-your-final-research-investigation\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"present the research design you will be using in your final research investigation - onlineclassesguru\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"You are really nervous before a first date, so your mother gives you some advice: \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Just be yourself. 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